Apoptosis (or programmed cell death, PCD) is a critical biological process that plays important roles in the development, maintenance, and elimination of cells within an organism. It is a highly regulated process that allows cells to die and have their contents recycled in a controlled manner, thereby maintaining tissue homeostasis, eliminating damaged or infected cells, and shaping the overall structure of tissues and organs. Apoptosis is characterized by a series of distinct events in cells. Morphological changes include cell shrinkage, chromatin condensation, nuclear fragmentation, cell membrane blebbing, and the formation of apoptotic bodies. Apoptotic bodies are subsequently engulfed and removed by phagocytic cells thereby preventing the release of potentially harmful cellular components into the surrounding tissue environment. There are two main pathways that trigger apoptosis: the intrinsic (mitochondrial) pathway and the extrinsic (death receptor) pathway. The intrinsic pathway is activated by various stress signals occurring within cells such as DNA damage or oxidative stress, or via the withdrawal of extracellular survival factors. These signals lead to disruption of mitochondrial membrane integrity and the release of pro-apoptotic proteins, such as cytochrome c, from the mitochondria into the cytoplasm. Cytochrome c then activates a cascade of proteolysis via various caspase proteases, ultimately leading to cell death. Conversely, the extrinsic pathway is initiated by the binding of extracellular death ligands, such as tumour necrosis factor (TNF) or Fas ligand, to specific death receptors on the cell surface. This binding triggers the assembly of the Death-Inducing Signalling Complex (DISC), which activates caspase proteases and initiates the apoptotic cascade. Both apoptotic pathways converge on the activation of a family of proteases called caspases, which act as the central executioners of apoptosis. In humans there are eleven known caspases, and they cleave various cellular substrates, leading to the dismantling of the cell's structural components and the activation of endonucleases that subsequently degrade the DNA within the nucleus, ensuring a controlled and irreversible cell death. Apoptosis plays a crucial role in various physiological processes throughout an organism's lifespan. During development, apoptosis is essential for sculpting tissues and organs, for example shaping fingers and toes, for removing excess neurons produced during development, and to eliminate structures that are no longer needed. By eliminating damaged, cancerous, or infected cells in adult organisms, apoptosis is involved in tissue homeostasis, ensuring a balance between cell proliferation and cell death. Dysregulation of apoptosis can have severe consequences and is associated with numerous diseases. Insufficient apoptosis can result in the survival of abnormal cells, such as cancer cells or cells with DNA damage, leading to tumour formation. Conversely, excessive apoptosis can contribute to degenerative disorders, such as neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's, where loss of neurons occurs. Given its importance in both normal development and disease, apoptosis has become a subject of intense research and understanding both the mechanisms of apoptosis and its deregulation has the potential to open new avenues for therapeutic interventions in a wide range of disorders. We provide a wide product range of research tools for investigating apoptosis, including p53 antibodies, Bcl-2 antibodies, NF-kB p65 antibodies, p53 ELISA Kits, and NF-kB p65 ELISA Kits. Explore our full apoptosis product range below and discover more, for less. Alternatively, you can explore our Intracellular, Receptors, and Nucleus product ranges.